Friday 31 July 2015

What is Learning disability ?

Learning disability is a classification that includes several areas of functioning in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner, usually caused by an unknown factor or factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "Learning Difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a lack of ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping.

While learning disability, learning disorder and learning difficulty are often used interchangeably, they differ in many ways. Disorder refers to significant learning problems in an academic area. These problems, however, are not enough to warrant an official diagnosis. Learning disability on the other hand, is an official clinical diagnosis, whereby the individual meets certain criteria, as determined by a professional (psychologist, pediatrician, etc.). The difference is in degree, frequency, and intensity of reported symptoms and problems, and thus the two should not be confused. When the term "learning disorder" is used, it describes a group of disorders characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills. Types of learning disorders include reading (dyslexia), mathematics (dyscalculia) and writing (dysgraphia).

The unknown factor is the disorder that affects the brain's ability to receive and process information. This disorder can make it problematic for a person to learn as quickly or in the same way as someone who is not affected by a learning disability. People with a learning disability have trouble performing specific types of skills or completing tasks if left to figure things out by themselves or if taught in conventional ways.

Individuals with learning disabilities can face unique challenges that are often pervasive throughout the lifespan. Depending on the type and severity of the disability, interventions and current technologies may be used to help the individual learn strategies that will foster future success. Some interventions can be quite simplistic, while others are intricate and complex. Current technologies may require student training to be effective classroom supports. Teachers, parents and schools can create plans together that tailor intervention and accommodations to aid the individuals in successfully becoming independent learners. School psychologists and other qualified professionals quite often help design the intervention and coordinate the execution of the intervention with teachers and parents. Social support may improve the learning for students with learning disabilities.
Representatives of organizations committed to the education and welfare of individuals with learning disabilities are known as National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD.) The NJCLD used the term 'learning disability' to indicate a discrepancy between a child’s apparent capacity to learn and his or her level of achievement. Several difficulties existed, however, with the NJCLD standard of defining learning disability. One such difficulty was its belief of central nervous system dysfunction as a basis of understanding and diagnosing learning disability. This conflicted with the fact that many individuals who experienced central nervous system dysfunction, such as those with cerebral palsy, did not experience disabilities in learning. On the other hand, those individuals who experienced multiple handicapping conditions along with learning disability frequently received inappropriate assessment, planning, and instruction. The NJCLD notes that it is possible for learning disability to occur simultaneously with other handicapping conditions, however, the two should not be directly linked together or confused.[5]

In the 1980s, NJCLD therefore defined the term learning disability as:

a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to Central Nervous System Dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g. sensory impairment, intellectual disability, social and emotional disturbance) or environmental influences (e.g. cultural differences, insufficient/inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors) it is not the direct result of those conditions or influences.

The 2002 LD Roundtable produced the following definition:

"Concept of LD: Strong converging evidence supports the validity of the concept of specific learning disabilities (SLD). This evidence is particularly impressive because it converges across different indicators and methodologies. The central concept of SLD involves disorders of learning and cognition that are intrinsic to the individual. SLD are specific in the sense that these disorders each significantly affect a relatively narrow range of academic and performance outcomes. SLD may occur in combination with other disabling conditions, but they are not due primarily to other conditions, such as intellectual disability, behavioral disturbance, lack of opportunities to learn, or primary sensory deficits."

The issue of defining learning disabilities has generated significant and ongoing controversy.[8] The term "learning disability" does not exist in DSM-IV, but it has been added to DSM-5. The DSM-5 does not limit learning disorders to a particular diagnosis such as reading, mathematics and written expression. Instead, it is a single diagnosis criteria describing drawbacks in general academic skills and includes detailed specifiers for the areas of reading, mathematics, and written expression.
Learning disabilities fall into broad categories based on the four stages of information processing used in learning: input, integration, storage, and output. Many learning disabilities are a compilation of a few types of abnormalities occurring at the same time, as well as with social difficulties and emotional or behavioral disorders

Input: This is the information perceived through the senses, such as visual and auditory perception. Difficulties with visual perception can cause problems with recognizing the shape, position, or size of items seen. There can be problems with sequencing, which can relate to deficits with processing time intervals or temporal perception. Difficulties with auditory perception can make it difficult to screen out competing sounds in order to focus on one of them, such as the sound of the teacher's voice in a classroom setting. Some children appear to be unable to process tactile input. For example, they may seem insensitive to pain or dislike being touched.
Integration: This is the stage during which perceived input is interpreted, categorized, placed in a sequence, or related to previous learning. Students with problems in these areas may be unable to tell a story in the correct sequence, unable to memorize sequences of information such as the days of the week, able to understand a new concept but be unable to generalize it to other areas of learning, or able to learn facts but be unable to put the facts together to see the "big picture." A poor vocabulary may contribute to problems with comprehension.

Storage: Problems with memory can occur with short-term or working memory, or with long-term memory. Most memory difficulties occur with one's short-term memory, which can make it difficult to learn new material without more repetitions than usual. Difficulties with visual memory can impede learning to spell.

Output: Information comes out of the brain either through words, that is, language output, or through muscle activity, such as gesturing, writing or drawing. Difficulties with language output can create problems with spoken language. Such difficulties include answering a question on demand, in which one must retrieve information from storage, organize our thoughts, and put the thoughts into words before we speak. It can also cause trouble with written language for the same reasons. Difficulties with motor abilities can cause problems with gross and fine motor skills. People with gross motor difficulties may be clumsy, that is, they may be prone to stumbling, falling, or bumping into things. They may also have trouble running, climbing, or learning to ride a bicycle. People with fine motor difficulties may have trouble with handwriting, buttoning shirts, or tying shoelaces.

MEd- Mainstreaming in education

Mainstreaming, in the context of education, is the practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes during specific time periods based on their skills. This means regular education classes are combined with special education classes. Schools that practice mainstreaming believe that students with special needs who cannot function in a regular classroom to a certain extent "belong" to the special education environment.

Access to a special education classroom, often called a "self-contained classroom or resource room", is valuable to the student with a disability. Students have the ability to work one-on-one with special education teachers, addressing any need for remediation during the school day. Many researchers, educators and parents have advocated the importance of these classrooms amongst political environments that favor their elimination.

Proponents of both philosophy of educational inclusion assert that educating children with disabilities alongside their non-disabled peers fosters understanding and tolerance, better preparing students of all abilities to function in the world beyond school.Children with special needs may face social stigma as a result of being mainstreamed, but also may help them socially develop.
It is believed that educating children with disabilities alongside their non-disabled peers, facilitates access to the general curriculum for children with disabilities. Studies show that students with disabilities who are mainstreamed have:

Benefits to students with disabilities

Higher academic achievement: Mainstreaming has shown to be more academically effective than exclusion practices. For instance, The National Research Center on Learning Disabilities found that graduation rates of all students with disabilities in the U.S. increased by 14% from 1984 to 1997, although this report does not differentiate between students enrolled in mainstreaming, inclusive, or segregated programs. Access to a resource room for direct instruction has shown to be effective in increasing students academic skills and thus increasing the abilities applied by students in a general education setting. Compared to full-time placement in a special education class or special school, both part-time and full-time placement in the regular classroom have been shown to improve academic achievement in students with mild academic disabilities, as well as to improve their long-term behavior.

Higher self-esteem: By being included in a regular-paced education setting, students with disabilities have shown to be more confident and display qualities of raised self-efficacy. All students in California who went to a different school prior to attending a mainstreaming program were asked to fill out an assessment of their old school as compared to inclusion program. The assessments showed that out of all students with disabilities 96% felt they were more confident, 3% thought they had the same experience as an excluded student, and 1% felt they had less self-esteem. Overall, students felt that they were equal to their peers and felt that they should not be treated any differently.

Better social skills: Any kind of inclusion practice, including mainstreaming, allows students with disabilities to learn social skills through observation, gain a better understanding of the world around them, and become a part of the “regular” community. Mainstreaming is particularly beneficial for children with autism and ADHD. By interacting with same-aged non-disabled children, children with autism were observed to be six times more likely to engage in social relations outside of the classroom. Because children with autism spectrum disorders have severely restricted interests and abnormalities in communication and social interaction, the increased interaction with typical children may be beneficial to them. The same 1999 study showed that students with Down’s syndrome were three times more likely to communicate with other people.

Mainstreaming also benefits other children. It opens the lines of communication between those students with disabilities and their peers. If they are included into classroom activities, all students become more sensitive to the fact that these students may need extra assistance.
Many people believe that educating non-disabled students and students with disabilities together creates an atmosphere of understanding and tolerance that better prepares students of all abilities to function in the world beyond school. Students without disabilities who engaged in an inclusive physical education program reported increases in self-concept, tolerance, self-worth, and a better understanding of other people. The students also reported that the inclusion program was important because it prepared them to deal with disability in their own lives.Positive aspects that come from inclusion are often attributed to contact theory. Contact theory asserts that frequent, meaningful, and pleasant interactions between people with differences tend to produce changes in attitude

Disadvantages

Although mainstreaming in education has been shown to provide benefits, there are also disadvantages to the system.

Tradeoff with non-disabled students' academic education
One potentially serious disadvantage to mainstreaming is that a mainstreamed student may require much more attention from the teacher than non-disabled students in a general class. Time and attention may thus be taken away from the rest of the class to meet the needs of a single student with special needs. The effect that a mainstreamed student has on the whole class depends strongly on the particular disabilities in question and the resources available for support. In many cases, this problem can be mitigated by placing an aide in the classroom to assist the student with special needs, although this raises the costs associated with educating this child.

Harm to students with disabilities' academic education
Parents fear that general education teachers do not have the training and skills to accommodate special needs students in a general education classroom setting. However, professional training and supportive services can usually address these concerns. Some research has suggested teachers who are not aware of—and later may choose not to adopt—modifications needed for students with special needs are also more resistant to having these students in class. This can lead to regression of the students with disabilites as well as overall decreased classroom productivity.

Social issues
Compared to fully included students with disabilities, those who are mainstreamed for only certain classes or certain times may feel conspicuous or socially rejected by their classmates. They may become targets for bullying. Mainstreamed students may feel embarrassed by the additional services they receive in a regular classroom, such as an aide to help with written work or to help the student manage behaviors. Some students with disabilities may feel more comfortable in an environment where most students are working at the same level or with the same supports. In the United States, students with autism spectrum disorders are more frequently the target of bullying than non-autistic students, especially when their educational program brings them into regular contact with non-autistic students.

Costs
Schools are required to provide special education services but may not be given additional financial resources. The per-student cost of special education is high. The U.S.'s 2005 Special Education Expenditures Program (SEEP) indicates that the cost per student in special education ranges from a low of $10,558 for students with learning disabilities to a high of $20,095 for students with multiple disabilities. The average cost per pupil for a regular education with no special education services is $6,556. Therefore, the average expenditure for students with learning disabilities is 1.6 times that of a general education student.

Careful attention must be given as well to combinations of students with disabilities in a mainstreamed classroom. For example, a student with conduct disorder may not combine well with a student with autism, while putting many children with dyslexia in the same class may prove to be particularly efficient.

Special consequences for deaf students
Deafness is a low-incidence disability, which means that a deaf child will often be the only student in the classroom with hearing loss. This leads to a special set of issues in the mainstream classroom. While students with other disabilities may experience isolation and bullying by their non-disabled peers, they often share a common language. This is not the case for deaf students. Very few people in the mainstream academic setting know sign language, which means the communication barrier is large and can have negative effects on both academic achievement and social development.

Social skills are key to a child’s healthy development and later success as an adult  Although many studies find good academic results for deaf children placed in a mainstream classroom, research also shows that mainstreamed deaf children experience higher degrees of isolation and psychological problems in comparison to deaf students who associate with other deaf peers. In order for friendships to form, communication is a necessity. For deaf children unable to use effective communication methods with the people around them, the difficulty in acquiring new friendships typically leads to isolation and a decrease in self-esteem. A study of preschool children showed that hearing preschoolers did not appear to adjust how they communicated with deaf children. Instead, they continued to use simple speech, which was effective with hearing, but not deaf, partners. This shows the isolation of the deaf child, and discredits the idea that the hearing and deaf child's communication skills will be enhanced by interaction with one another. In many cases, hearing children do not understand what it means when another child is deaf. This leads to frustration when a deaf child’s speech is not clear or when the deaf child asks for continuous repetition.

 Communication strategies that are culturally acceptable to the deaf child, such as banging on a table or physically touching another person, can also cause the deaf child to be rejected by his or her peers because such behaviors are not always considered acceptable in mainstreaming hearing culture. Research has suggested that the placement of a deaf child in special schools or classes may be more desirable for deaf students than for those with other disabilities. This is primarily because of the greater social benefits for the students.

The residual knowledge that hearing children can access is often lost on deaf children. A hearing child can listen in on adult conversations, TV, radio and the news to learn things that are not specifically taught or told to them. This is not the case with the deaf child, who, in a hearing environment, can only learn what is directly communicated to them. This often leads to gaps in general knowledge, which can be both harmful to academic success and social interactions.


The effect of mainstreaming on Deaf culture is also a key issue for Deaf culture advocates. The rate of children enrolled in residential schools for the deaf is declining, as many hearing parents send their child to a mainstream school in hopes of preparing their child for life in the hearing world. In the past, Deaf schools and clubs served as the center for Deaf culture. Traditions, stories, and values developed and were fostered in these settings, but because of the low incidence of deafness, this same environment cannot be duplicated in the mainstream setting. Aside from the decreased socialization of a deaf child in a hearing school, Deaf community advocates also worry that the disappearance of residential Deaf schools will lead to a weakening of Deaf culture and of the community.

MEd- Special education and Identifying students or learners with special needs

Special education (also known as Special needs education, Aided education, Vocational education, Limb care authority education) is the practice of educating students with special needs in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help learners with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and their community, than may be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.

Common special needs include learning disabilities, communication disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, and developmental disabilities. Students with these kinds of special needs are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, the use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, or a resource room.

Intellectual giftedness is a difference in learning and can also benefit from specialized teaching techniques or different educational programs, but the term "special education" is generally used to specifically indicate instruction of students with disabilities. Gifted education is handled separately.

Whereas special education is designed specifically for students with special needs, remedial education can be designed for any students, with or without special needs; the defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of underpreparedness, regardless of why. For example, even people of high intelligence can be underprepared if their education was disrupted, for example, by internal displacement during civil disorder or a war.

In most developed countries, educators modify teaching methods and environments so that the maximum number of students are served in general education environments. Therefore, special education in developed countries is often regarded as a service rather than a place.Integration can reduce social stigmas and improve academic achievement for many students.

The opposite of special education is general education. General education is the standard curriculum presented without special teaching methods or supports.

Identifying students or learners with special needs
Some children are easily identified as candidates for special needs due to their medical history. They may have been diagnosed with a genetic condition that is associated with intellectual disability, may have various forms of brain damage, may have a developmental disorder, may have visual or hearing disabilities, or other disabilities.

For students with less obvious disabilities, such as those who have learning difficulties, two primary methods have been used for identifying them: the discrepancy model and the response to intervention model. The discrepancy model depends on the teacher noticing that the students' achievements are noticeably below what is expected. The response to intervention model advocates earlier intervention.

In the discrepancy model, a student receives special education services for a specific learning difficulty (SLD) if the student has at least normal intelligence and the student's academic achievement is below what is expected of a student with his or her IQ. Although the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years, there has been substantial criticism of this approach (e.g., Aaron, 1995, Flanagan and Mascolo, 2005) among researchers. One reason for criticism is that diagnosing SLDs on the basis of the discrepancy between achievement and IQ does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic achievers who also have low IQ appear to benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who have normal or high intelligence.

The alternative approach, response to intervention, identifies children who are having difficulties in school in their first or second year after starting school. They then receive additional assistance such as participating in a reading remediation program. The response of the children to this intervention then determines whether they are designated as having a learning disability. Those few who still have trouble may then receive designation and further assistance. Sternberg (1999) has argued that early remediation can greatly reduce the number of children meeting diagnostic criteria for learning disabilities. He has also suggested that the focus on learning disabilities and the provision of accommodations in school fails to acknowledge that people have a range of strengths and weaknesses and places undue emphasis on academics by insisting that students should be supported in this arena and not in music or sports

I HEAR AMERICA SINGING (POEM) -Walt Whitman

About the Poet:
 I HEAR AMERICA SINGING Walt Whitman is a famous American poet. He was a prophet of democracy. Whitman is considered as the father of free verse. Walt Whitman is a typical American poet. He always breaks away from the tradition and creates a new trial. 

Theme of the poem : Whitman celebrates the freedom of the individual and the freedom enjoyed in the United States.

 Summary : The poem underscores Whitman’s basic attitude towards America ,which is part of his ideal human life. The American nation has based its faith on the creativeness of labour which is glorified in the poem. The catalogue of craftsmen covers not only the length and breadth of the American continent but also the large and varied field of American achievement. This poem expresses Whitman’s love of America-its vitality, variety and the massive achievement which is the outcome of the creative endeavor of its entire people. It also illustrates Whitman’s technique of using catalogues consisting of a list of people. The poet hears the varied carols of all the people who contribute to the life and culture of America. The mechanic, the carpenter, the mason, the boatman, the shoe maker and the wood cutter all join in the chorus of the nation. The singing of the mother, the wife and the girl at work expresses their joy and their feeling of fruition. They are highly individualistic men and women. 

Each person sings ‘what belongs to him or her and to none else.’ At night young men sing loud ‘melodious ‘ songs. All of the workers mentioned are that of the labour class, they do manual labour not desk work. Most likely they all ‘sing’ because the work they do causes some sort of sound. Whitman is emphasising that each man can have pride in what he does, even if he doesn’t make a lot of money .Each one is important to contribute to the strength of this country. He recognises the value of women’s work. Whitman shows the value of work in the American society.This poem elucidates that an individual had a particular role to play on the society in which he\she thrives. He encourages industry in America to be heard as something pleasant ,as a chorus of many songs. The poet decides to glorify and celebrate work as well as a perception of nationalism. Whitman is celebrating the greatness of America by celebrating the greatness of its individuals. The democratic nature of Whitman’s poetry is reflected by his subject matter .He celebrates mechanics, carpenter s, masons, mothers-the type of people usually not discussed in poems. For Whitman, it is the individual freedom that allows him to be great. Literary terms used in this poem include rhythm, synecdoche, metaphor, repetition, and imagery.

 1. Rhyme Scheme - There is no rhyme scheme. Whitman is the father of free verse. 2. Rhythm and Meter- There is no metrical pattern. He does use repetition, however, to create rhythm. 3. Synecdoche - Of all the "I Hear America Singing" literary terms, none makes its mark more strongly than synecdoche. "America" in line 1 represents individual Americans, more specifically, workers. Each line of the poem is an example of synecdoche (a special type of metaphor where the parts equal the whole or the whole equals the parts). Whitman is celebrating the greatness of America by celebration ,the greatness of its individuals. 4. Word Choice - "Carols" in line 1 is a connotatively charged word. It is most often associated with holy songs about Christmas. There is no other way to celebrate individuals and the physical body than connecting it with the physical manifestation of God himself. 5. Metaphor - the sounds and actions of laborers working is compared to music. Note that all the jobs described by Whitman require physical effort. 6. Repetition - The repetition of "the" in the final seven lines help create rhythm much in the same way the repetition of worker’s actions establish a work rhythm. 7. The democratic nature of Whitman's poetry is reflected by his subject matter. He celebrates mechanics, carpenters, masons, mothers--the type of people usually not discussed in poems. For Whitman, it is the individual who matters and the individual freedom that allows him to be great--"Each singing what belongs to her"--that matters. 8. Theme: Whitman's poem celebrates the individuals who make America great and the right to individual liberty that makes it possible

Thursday 30 July 2015

SOFT SKILLS FOR ACADEMIC PRESENTATION.

Academic presentations are of great importance in our day to day life. Different types of topics demand different types of presentation. To make effective presentation we need to acquire certain soft skill that include an awareness regarding our audience, the use of proper language, the use of visual aids as well as time management.

 AUDIENCE This is the key to begin a presentation. The method of presentation depends on the audience whom you are going to face. Primary audience Primary audience are those who listen to you directly when you make presentation. They are your formal audience whose age, culture, education, and economics decide the nature of your presentation. They carry your message to a larger group. Secondary audience Secondary audience are the opinion leaders and decision makers. Through your primary audience your ideas reach your secondary audience. Opinion leaders are responsible for the political, cultural or religious opinion of your primary audience. For example in the case of a business presentation, they can be the directors of a company. Decision makers are people to whom your presentation is going to reach based on which they decide whether to accept your ideas or not. Your friends and family who help you design your presentation are also your secondary audience.

 THE OBJECTIVE OF PRESENTATION To decide the suitable presentation method, you need to identify the purpose or objective of your presentation, whether it is to persuade or to inform. Academic presentations are usually a combination of both. Before you start your presentation, consider the following points. 1. Language: Use a language appropriate to reveal your idea 2. Trimming the presentation: Delete unnecessary information. 3. Ice breaking: An ice breaking session where you collect information about your audience and establish a rapport through some group activity will help you to identify your objective. 4. Choosing the appropriate medium: Based on your objective, you can choose any of the following medium
Video presentation: when addressing global audiences spread across different parts of the world video conferencing is the best medium. While doing this, try to make your presentation interesting by using slides, visual aids, video clips etc.

 TECHNIQUES OF EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION: 1. Surprise and grab attention in the beginning: begin your presentation in such a way as to grab the attention of your audience. You can begin with an interesting quote or a surprising fact. Using a surprising fact as an opening line is called Von Restorff effect. 2. Repetition: Repeat your main ideas to remind your audience of its importance. 3. Summarizing: Keep summarizing each part of the presentation so as to link it with the following parts and try to draw the audience attention to the important section by using attention drawing expressions like the main idea is, in the other words etc. 4. Effective conclusion: Conclude your presentation effectively by using quotations, summaries, or by asking questions.

 STRUCTURING THE PRESENTATION: The most appropriate structure for any presentation is that of listing the main ideas and then elaborating the points. A logical ordering of the different parts of your presentation is an essential aspect of any presentation. For example, a presentation of 30 minutes can be logically structured as follows. 1. Introduction 3 minutes: Begin the presentation by stating the main idea to help the audience know the subject of presentation. 2. Main body 15 minutes: Here you elaborate your main idea by presenting the finding of your survey and your data analysis to convince them. 3. Conclusion 2 minutes: Here you conclude by giving a summary or by emphasising the main argument of your presentation. 4. Questions and answers 10 minutes: This part is meant for audience interaction where you invite questions and suggestions from your audience and try to answer their doubts seriously and honestly.


 VISUAL PRESENTATION AIDS : Visual presentation is useful where you want to: 1. Present statistical and numerical data 2. Present diagrams or topics related to arts, design or any subject which involves display of material. 3. Present or introduce a new data or plan 4. Present comparison of facts and figures in graphic or diagrammatic form. 5. Present new interpretation of old data.

ADVANTAGES OF VISUAL AIDS 1. Seeing things improves ones understanding of those things. 2. We respond easily to what we see. 3. It will promote the interest and attention of the audience. 4.A lot of information can be presented within a short time using visual aids. 5.It saves time. 6.It increases the effectiveness of the presentation. How to Use Visual Aids: 1. Do not use too many visuals. 2. Use one visual for one main point. 3. Prepare the visuals in bold and clear letter so that it can be seen by persons sitting at the back. 4. Do not use too many words on a single slide. 5. Write single words or short phrases on the slide. 6. Use various colours to highlight various points. 7. Try the method of revealing one point at a time if you have written more than one point on the slide. 8. Number the slides and rehearse the presentation to avoid confusion. 9. While showing the visual aids explain their purpose and content. 10. Keep it displayed for a sufficient period of time for the audience to read and note it down.
Different kinds of visual aids: 1. Boards: A board is a primary aid used in classrooms. It can be either black or white. While writing on the board, it is better to divide it into parts for writing down points, for doing calculations as well as for drawing figures. The writing must be bold and clear. Clean the board when you end the presentation. 2. Flip chart: While making presentations for a small group of 15 to 20 people, you can use a flip chart which is a large pad of paper on a stand. Advantages of using flip chart are: a. They can be prepared in advance for presenting diagrams, graphs or charts. b. They can be used for prompting you. You can write the main points faintly in pencil and use it during the presentation. c. It can be used for creating, presenting and recording audience’s feedback at the end of the presentation. d. Flip chart, which can be written using water soluble ink can be used repeatedly. 3. Overhead projectors (OHP): This is the most commonly used visual aid. This can be used while speaking to the audience with a prepared transparency of bright, large and colourful image projected on the screen. It is better to use a transparency with neatly and clearly typed matter.
How to prepare transparencies: 1. Make it clear and visible. 2. Write one point on one transparency. 3. Do not include too many points or diagrams on a single transparency. 4. Write a maximum of eight lines of six words (48 words) on a single transparency. 5. Use different bulletins to make main points and the sub points. 6. Place the information at the centre. Points for using OHP 1. Check that the projector switches are working. 2. The projector lens and the projection surface must be clean. 3. Adjust the focus to get the brightest and the largest image. 4. Switch off the projectors between the visuals. 5. Keep the fan inside the projector on while showing the visuals. 6. Use a pointer or a pen or pencil to point to the transparency. 7. Unfold the points one by one. 8. Look at your audience while making presentations. 4. Power point projections: With the advent of computers, the OHPs are being replaced by power point presentations in which images and information are projected using a multimedia projector. In this entire presentation is prepared in the form of a floppy disc or prepared directly in a laptop and is projected using an LCD projector. While making power point presentations, ensure that the place where you are going to present has enough size, ventilation and seating arrangement.
 • Clarity and persuasion: To make your presentations clear 1. You must understand your topic well. 2. Use simple and appropriate language. 3. Establish a friendly relation with your audience. 4. Structure your presentation properly. 5. Use examples and illustrations that can be understood by the audience. 6. Use audio visual aids effectively. • To make your presentation persuasive 1. Use clear and accurate statement of the topic. 2. Give logical explanatios. 3. Give only the relevant details. 4. Try to appeal to the audience’s emotions. 5. Give real life examples. Non verbal communication: While making presentations, it is important to consider how you present yourself in front of the audience. Non verbal communication (communication without using language, such as body language, expressions, actions etc.) is equally important. Hence give attention to the following aspects while making presentations:

1. Your appearance. 2. Maintain positive posture. 3. Maintain eye contact. 4. Use positive gestures(actions) and hand movements. 5. Do not stand fixed. Move between the screen and the audience. 6. Smile and be relaxed while answering the questions. Guidelines for Effective Presentation: 1. Tryto involve your audience in the presentation and encourage their participation. 2. Prepare and perform well and be confident. 3. Don’t speak in a low feeble voice. 4. Don’t shout, which will make you sound angry. 5. Maintain eye contact to arouse audience interest. 6. Be simple and clear. 7. Ask interesting questions to the audience. 8. Invite volunteers from audience for role play. 9. Stand close to the audience so that you are fully visible to them. 10. Avoid stage fright. 11. Visualize the successful end of your presentation.

Opening and closing: Opening: This is a very important stage of the presentation. While beginning your presentation, try to arouse the interest of your audience within 30 to 40 secondas. You can do this by doing the following: 1. Have a pleasant expression on your face. 2. Maintain a positive and confident posture. 3. Ask questions to the audience. 4. Narrate an incident that will arouse their curiosity. 5. Use stories or interesting statistics. Closing: While closing the presentation 1. Give s summary of the presentation. 2. End it positively. 3. Call for action. Time Management: Time management is very important for the success of any presentation. To observe the time limit strictly 1. Plan and organoize the presentation properly. 2. Try to limit the speed of your presentation between 110 to 120 words per minute. 3. Give equal importance to the discussion and the solution of the problem. 4. Time should be given to the audience to ask questions or to give their suggestions to make them feel that they are the active participants of the presentation. 5. Organize the arguments well in advance. 6. Make swift transitions. 7. Make an impressive introduction. 8. Be objective. 

THE ELEMENTS OF WRITING - Punctuation

Punctuation: Punctuation is one of the most basic elements of writing that helps in conveying the idea properly. It helps the readers to understand what the writer wants to communicate. The following are the important punctuations used in writing

 1. Comma(,): Commas are usually used to separate items in a list. Eg: she wanted to buy some rice, vegetables, milk and egg.
 • It is used: To separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction such as ‘for’, ‘and’, ‘nor’, ‘but’, ‘or’, yet and ‘so’ (FANBOYS). Place to comma before the conjunction. Eg: I want to go out, and meet my friend. 
• After introductory words or phrases to set off the introductory word. Eg: Walking with his father, the boy thought about his school. 
• Before and after any non-restrictive word, phrase or clause which are not essential to the meaning of the sentence; Eg: My wife, Reema, is coming today. (The non-restrictive word ‘Reema’ is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. If it was restrictive, that is essential for the meaning of the sentence, do not use commas.)
 • Between adjectives that modify the same noun. Eg: She is a smart, intelligent girl.
 • To set off a noun of direct address from the rest of the sentence. Eg: Sheena, please open the window. 
• While using quotations, insert comma after the introductory words. Eg: He said, “ this is a strange thing.”
 • Do not use commas with short quoted words like, he called his brother a ‘genius’. 
• With dates and place names. Eg: January15, 2011

 2. Semicolons (;): This is used to 
• Separate two independent clauses that are closely related but are not joined by conjunctions. Eg: The weather was bad; it caused many inconveniences. 
• When items in a series have commas within them, semicolons are used to separate different items. Eg: you will have a reading test, based on a topic; a written test, which will be of one hour duration; and an oral test. 
• To separate independent clauses when the second one begins with adverbs like however, nevertheless and therefore. Eg: This task is very difficult to accomplish; therefore, you will have to work hard.

3. Colons (:): • To introduce a list. Eg: she called out the following names: Raji, Robert, Sreya and Nimmi. 
• Colon is not used with ‘to be’ verbs. Eg: The book’s defects are: its loose plot, its length and its improbable ending. (Do not put colon after ‘are’) 
• To introduce a direct quote when the introductory words form a complete statement. Eg: The product has the following warning on the bottle: “Harmful if inhaled.”
 • To introduce a word, phrase, or a clause that explains or summarizes the first part of the sentence. Eg: She went for the interview with a single thought in her mind: to get that job.

 4. End punctuation: A) Period/ full stop (.): this is used to end a sentence. It is also used with some abbreviations (B.Sc.). B) Question mark (?): this is used after a direct question. A question mark appears inside the quotation if it forms part of the quotation. Eg: what is your name? He asked, “what is your name?” C) Exclamation mark (!): it is used in case of highly emotional language to show surprise or extreme happiness. Eg: Watch out for the elephant!

 5. Apostrophes (’): • This is used in contractions, words in which letters have been omitted. Eg: can’t, don’t etc 
• Do not use it while showing possession. Eg: the cat licked its paw. (no apostrophe after t in ‘its’) 
• To form the possessive form of a noun use an apostrophe and ‘s’ to singular nouns whether or not they end in ‘s’. add only an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in ‘s’. Eg: Reena’s book. Men’s rest room. Waitress’s house Students’ day celebration. • It is not used with possessive pronouns. Eg: the new car is hers. 6. Quotation marks (“ ”) (‘’): • Single quotes are used to indicate to set off some ones exact words. Eg : He said, ‘please pass the butter.’ 
• Quotation marks around a word is used to indicate that the word is used in an unusual sense. 
• Names of articles, poems and chapters are included in quotation marks. • Double quotation, marks are used for quotes within quotes. Eg: Satish argues that ‘the very notion of “modular” western nationalism is thrown open to doubt.’
6. Hyphens (-): • Used to form compound adjectives that come before nouns. Eg: well-constructed • Used in spelled out numbers and fractions. Eg: twenty-three, one-third • Used to form compound words. Eg: non-violence • Used to divide a word at the end of a line to break the word. Never break a one syllabled word.

 7. Dashes: there are two types of dashes, em dash, which is longer and en dash which is shorter than an em dash but longer than a hyphen. Em dash is used • To show a sudden break in thought. • To set off information that is less important than the rest of the information but too important to enclose in brackets. • An en dash is used To indicate ‘to’ or through’ within a range of numbers.

 8. Parentheses ( ): this is used to • Set off comments that are less important than the rest of the sentence or that which provides additional information. Eg: Please call me (004672348) when you come back. • When a complete sentence is enclosed within the parantheses, full stop, question mark and exclamation mark go inside the parantheses.

  9. Brackets( [ ]): it is used • to enclose explanatory comments within a direct quote. Eg: the commentator reported, ‘He [the president] denied all charges.’ • Use brackets with the word ‘sic’ to indicate a spelling or grammatical mistake made by the speaker while using direct quote. Eg: he said, ‘I am very [sic] consentious.’ 

10. Ellipsis points (. . .): ellipses or three evenly spaced periods indicate that some part of the material has been left out. This is used within brackets. Eg: Wordsworth said, ‘Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings […] recollected in tranquility.’ • If words are omitted at the end of the quoted material use four instead of three ellipses points. • For non-quoted material, use ellipses marks without brackets to show a thought that is interrupted or incomplete.

What is critical thinking and its benefits.

Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years. The term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late 20th century. Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way. People who think critically and consistently, attempt to live rationally, reasonably and empathically. The National Council For Excellence in Critical Thinking defines it as an intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. 


Critical thinking enables us to analyse and evaluate information to identify justifiable reason or evidence for doing something or for not doing something, justifications for believing something or for not believing something. Whenever we ask for reasons for any of our actions, we are thinking critically. Developing a questioning attitude is essential for a critical thinker which is self directed as well as directed towards others. The quality of our life and that of what we produce depends on our thought. Critical thinking helps us to improve the quality and reliability of our thinking process, which in turn will result in a better way of living. The following are some of the major benefits of critical thinking • It helps us to become a wise person. • To come up with a judicious evaluation of events. • To develop a sense of intellectual integrity. • To become accurate precise and clear. • To develop a relevant, deep, broad and logical attitude in understanding and handling different situations. • To develop a special strength of mind, liberal and free from biases and prejudices. • To become a good decision maker. • To become rational.To follow certain standards of reflective thinking. • To identify and to focus on the relevant aspects of an issue. • To become reasonable. • To act rationally rather than emotionally. • In academic matters it helps students to learn, evaluate and understand the subject matter in a more judicious way.

Barriers to Critical thinking 1. Social brainwashing and our view of the world An individual develops his understanding of the world from his own surroundings and from his society. There he comes under the influence of many factors like his parents, teachers, friends, as well as print and electronic media which are not always unbiased. Such influences prevent free thinking. 2. Tendencies to think in binaries The common human tendency is to judge everything in binaries, like good or bad, just or unjust etc. Doing this often leads to bad theories. 3. Fears regarding free thinking The fear of voicing a new opinion stems from the fear of making mistakes or of making a fool of oneself. This results in following the path of others, in spite of the realisation that this is wrong. Many of our societies as well as our traditional educational systems discourage free thinking. To overcome this a critic needs self-will to express what he thinks is right. 4. Personal interests and personal experiences We often tend to judge and evaluate ideas and situations based on our social and emotional commitment, individual interest and past experiences. This prevents rational, objective and critical analysis of issues. 5. Pride and egocentrism (self-centered thinking) Many people consider themselves as the greatest and the most powerful of all the others. They are egocentric and they consider themselves as the centre of the universe. Such people stick to their own perspective and fail to appreciate alternate ways of looking at things. 6. Sociocentrism or ethnocentrism (group/society/cultural-centered thinking) Following the thought patterns common to a group, society or culture as well as thinking in favour of a particular group or community without judging its credibility is a barrier to critical thinking.


7. Fear of change or an unwillingness to change Some people are afraid or unwilling to change their views which makes them reluctant to conduct critical thinking. 8. Bias and prejudice Personal prejudices as well as biases create problems in thinking objectively and critically 9. Narrow-mindedness or close-mindedness We need an open and liberal state of mind ready to receive new ideas and to admit positive criticism to follow critical thinking. 10. Wishful thinking Tendency to think and believe what one wishes as true discourages a person from thinking critically. 11. Poor reading and comprehension skills, poor or dysfunctional communication skills Lack of proper reading, inability to understand as well as poor communication skills have an adverse effect on critical thinking.Arguments In critical thinking we are trying to find out reasons or evidence for all our activities. It is related to logic. Hence arguments form the basis of critical thinking. An argument is an attempt to persuade by giving good reasons. While arguing we are trying to provide supporting evidence or justification in support of what we do and what we believe. Difference between argument and opinion An argument is always supported or backed by reason or evidence. It is an attempt to give rational justifications for whatever we do or believe. An argument is a product of rational deliberation, whereas an opinion is not supported by evidence or reason. It is just a passing comment on something. For instance consider the following statements:

 1. The new method of teaching is better than the previous one. 2. The new method of teaching is better than the previous one because it helps students to score better marks Here the first statement is an opinion since it is not supported by evidence to prove the statement. The second statement, on the other hand, is an argument because it is backed by evidence to prove the claim. Most often, we form opinions after rational deliberation and hence they are based on arguments.


Recognising an argument/ Features of an argument Each argument is composed of premises (this is a term for statements that express your reasons or evidence) that are arranged in the right way to support your conclusion (the main claim or interpretation you are offering). Following are the main features that will help you recognise an argument • An argument is a string of statements. • The statements are to be related. • The relation should be such that a few of the statements give support to one main statement. • The supporting statements are called premises. They are the evidence or justifications given to support the major claim. • The major claim or supported statement is called conclusion. The words ‘therefore’ ‘so’ are used for this. For example: All malayalees are highly educated. Veena is a Malayalee. So, she is highly educated. In this example we have a group of related statements. The first two statements support the major claim that we want to prove. The first two statements are premises given in support of the final statement which is the conclusion. You can make your arguments stronger by 

1. Using good premises (ones you have good reason to believe are both true and relevant to the issue at hand), 2. Making sure your premises provide good support for your conclusion (and not some other conclusion, or no conclusion at all), 3. Checking that you have addressed the most important or relevant aspects of the issue (that is, that your premises and conclusion focus on what is really important to the issue you're arguing about), and 4. Not making claims that are so strong or sweeping that you can't really support them.


Evaluating an argument We evaluate an argument based on two criteria. They are 1. Logical content: Every argument is an attempt at establishing a claim on the basis of other claims. The logical content of an argument refers to this logical structure of an argument which makes it a good argument. It ensures the validity of an argument. In a valid argument, true premises will lead to true conclusions. This is one of the most important concepts of an argument. 2. Truth content: Truth content makes an argument a sound argument. When we ask whether the evidence given in support of the conclusion is true, we are considering the truth content of an argument. For example, consider the following argument Amitabh Bachchan is the father of Abhishek Bachchan. Karishma Kapoor is the wife of Abhishek Bachan. So, Amithab Bachchan is the father-in-law of Karishma Kapoor. 

This argument is a valid argument since it has all the features of an argument or the logical structure of an argument. This is a good argument, but not a sound argument since it lacks truth content. The premises given in support of the conclusion are not true. Hence this cannot be accepted. Now consider another argument Amithab Bachan is the father of Abhishek Bachan. Aiswarya Rai is the wife of Abhishek Bachan. So, Amithab Bachan is the father-in-law of Aiswarya Rai. This is a sound argument since it has logical content as well as truth content.

Wednesday 29 July 2015

NATURAL MEDICINE FOR STRESS

Ocimum tenuiflorum, also known as Ocimum sanctum, holy basil, or tulasi (other spelling thulasi), is an aromatic plant in the family Lamiaceae which is native to the Indian subcontinent and widespread as a cultivated plant throughout the Southeast Asian tropics. It is an erect, many branched subshrub, 30–60 cm (12–24 in) tall with hairy stems and simple phyllotaxic green or purple leaves that are strongly scented.
Ocimum tenuiflorum2.jpg

Leaves have petioles and are ovate, up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long, usually slightly toothed. The flowers are purplish in elongate racemes in close whorls.The two main morphotypes cultivated in India and Nepal are green-leaved (Sri or Lakshmi tulasi) and purple-leaved (Krishna tulasi).

Tulasi is cultivated for religious and medicinal purposes, and for its essential oil. It is widely known across the Indian subcontinent as a medicinal plant and an herbal tea, commonly used in Ayurveda, and has an important role within the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism, in which devotees perform worship involving holy basil plants or leaves. This plant is revered as an elixir of life.

The variety of Ocimum tenuiflorum used in Thai cuisine is referred to as Thai holy basil (Thai: กะเพรา kaphrao); it is not to be confused with Thai basil, which is a variety of Ocimum basilicum.
DNA barcodes of various biogeographical isolates of Tulsi from the Indian subcontinent are now available. In a large-scale phylogeographical study of this species conducted using chloroplast genome sequences, a group of researchers from Central University of Punjab, Bathinda have found that this plant originates from North Central India. The finding is especially interesting, as this region has played important roles in the religious and cultural uprising of India, and the present discovery might suggest the evolution of Tulasi is related with the cultural migratory patterns in the Indian subcontinent.
Tulasi (Sanskrit:-Surasa) has been used for thousands of years in Ayurveda for its diverse healing properties. It is mentioned in the Charaka Samhita, an ancient Ayurvedic text. Tulsi is considered to be an adaptogen, balancing different processes in the body, and helpful for adapting to stress. Marked by its strong aroma and astringent taste, it is regarded in Ayurveda as a kind of "elixir of life" and believed to promote longevity.

Tulasi extracts are used in ayurvedic remedies for a variety of ailments. Traditionally, tulasi is taken in many forms: as herbal tea, dried powder, fresh leaf or mixed with ghee. Essential oil extracted from Karpoora tulasi is mostly used for medicinal purposes and in herbal cosmetics.

NATURAL MEDICINE FOR ARTHRITIS

Justicia gendarussa, commonly known as willow-leaved justicia (Marathi: बाकस, bakas, काळा अडुळसा, kala adulasa; Sanskrit: कसनः, kasanah, वैध्यसिंहा, vaidyasinha), is a small erect, branched shrub, endemic to India.
Leaves and flowers

It is useful in asthma, rheumatism and colics of children.It may have the potential to be the basis for a birth control pill for men. Clinical tests are being conducted in Indonesia.
Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation; plural: arthritides) is a form of joint disorder that involves inflammation of one or more joints. There are over 100 different forms of arthritis.The most common form of arthritis is osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease), a result of trauma to the joint, infection of the joint, or age. Other arthritis forms are rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and related autoimmune diseases. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection.

The major complaint by individuals who have arthritis is joint pain. Pain is often a constant and may be localized to the joint affected. The pain from arthritis is due to inflammation that occurs around the joint, damage to the joint from disease, daily wear and tear of joint, muscle strains caused by forceful movements against stiff painful joints and fatigue.
Pain, which can vary in severity, is a common symptom in virtually all types of arthritis. Other symptoms include swelling, joint stiffness and aching around the joint(s). Arthritic disorders like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis can affect other organs in the body, leading to a variety of symptoms. Symptoms may include:

Inability to use the hand or walk
Stiffness, which may be worse in the morning, or after use
Malaise and fatigue
Weight loss
Poor sleep
Muscle aches and pains
Tenderness
Difficulty moving the joint
It is common in advanced arthritis for significant secondary changes to occur. For example, arthritic symptoms might make it difficult for a person to move around and/or exercise, which can lead to secondary effects, such as:

Muscle weakness
Loss of flexibility
Decreased aerobic fitness
These changes, in addition to the primary symptoms, can have a huge impact on quality of life.
Arthritis is the most common cause of disability in the USA. More than 20 million individuals with arthritis have severe limitations in function on a daily basis. Absenteeism and frequent visits to the physician are common in individuals who have arthritis. Arthritis can make it very difficult for individuals to be physically active and some become home bound.

It is estimated that the total cost of arthritis cases is close to $100 billion of which almost 50% is from lost earnings. Each year, arthritis results in nearly 1 million hospitalizations and close to 45 million outpatient visits to health care centers.

Decreased mobility, in combination with the above symptoms, can make it difficult for an individual to remain physically active, contributing to an increased risk of obesity, high cholesterol or vulnerability to heart disease. People with arthritis are also at increased risk of depression, which may be a response to numerous factors, including fear of worsening .

Effective natural medicine for unwanted hairs.Turmeric

Curcuma aromatica (common name: wild turmeric) is a member of the Curcuma genus belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. Botanically close to Curcuma australasica, wild turmeric has been widely used as a cosmetic herbal in South Asia and nearby regions.

Curcuma aromatica.jpg
The wild ginger is one among the 80 members of Zingiberaceae family of plants. The perennial foliage dies down in late autumn and the rhizomes remain dormant in winter. The inflorescence appears in early spring from the base of the rhizomes. During summer monsoon season and the immediately following weeks, the plant grows fast and vigorously. The stalk grows to about 20–30 centimetres (7.9–11.8 in) tall, and is crowned with enlarged coloured bracts with pink tips. Leaves often appear even after the flowers. When in full growth the plants can reach a height of about40 cm (16 in) tall.
Image result for manjal

Wild turmeric has rhizomes with a peculiar fragrance and cream color. The rhizomes are often used in cosmetic herbal medicines and as a culinary ingredient in limited quantities as a food flavor. Leaves are broad and very decorative, elliptic with a leaf stem running as long to the tip of the blade. A fresh stalk with flowers and leaves, cut to proper size and shape, can be used as a floral indoor decoration in vase for up to 10 days.

annona muricata- cancer medicinal plants

Annona muricata is a species of the genus Annona of the custard apple tree family, Annonaceae, known mostly for its edible fruit. The fruit is usually called soursop due to its slightly acidic taste when ripe. A. muricata is native to the Caribbean and Central America but is now widely cultivated – and in some areas, becoming invasive – in tropical climates throughout the world. Habit Annona muricata is a small, upright, evergreen tree that can grow to about 4 metres (13 ft) tall.

Annona muricata 1.jpg
Stems and leaves
The young branches are hairy.
Leaves are oblong to oval, 8 centimetres (3.1 in) to 16 centimetres (6.3 in) long and 3 centimetres (1.2 in) to 7 centimetres (2.8 in) wide. Glossy dark green with no hairs above, paler and minutely hairy to no hairs below.
The leaf stalks are 4 millimetres (0.16 in) to 13 millimetres (0.51 in) long and without hairs.

Flowers
Flower stalks (peduncles) are 2 millimetres (0.079 in) to 5 millimetres (0.20 in) long and woody. They appear opposite from the leaves or as an extra from near the leaf stalk, each with one or two flowers, occasionally a third.
Stalks for the individual flowers (pedicels) are stout and woody, minutely hairy to hairless and 15 millimetres (0.59 in) to 20 millimetres (0.79 in) with small bractlets nearer to the base which are densely hairy.


Petals are thick and yellowish. Outer petals meet at the edges without overlapping and are broadly ovate, 2.8 centimetres (1.1 in) to 3.3 centimetres (1.3 in) by 2.1 centimetres (0.83 in) to 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in), tapering to a point with a heart shaped base. Evenly thick, covered with long, slender, soft hairs externally and matted finely with soft hairs within. Inner petals are oval shaped and overlap. 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in) to 2.8 centimetres (1.1 in) by 2 centimetres (0.79 in). Sharply angled and tapering at the base. Margins are comparatively thin, with fine matted soft hairs on both sides. The receptacle is conical and hairy. Stamens 4.5 millimetres (0.18 in) long and narrowly wedge-shaped. The connective-tip terminate abruptly and anther hollows are unequal. Sepals are quite thick and do not overlap. Carpels are linear and basally growing from one base. The ovaries are covered with dense reddish brown hairs, 1-ovuled, style short and stigma truncate.

Fruits and reproduction
Dark green, prickly (or bristled) fruits are egg-shaped and can be up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long, with a moderately firm texture. Flesh is juicy, acid, whitish[6] and aromatic.

Abundant seeds the average weight of 1000 fresh seeds is 470 grams (17 oz) and had an average oil content of 24%. When dried for 3 days in 60 °C (140 °F) the average seed weight was 322 grams (11.4 oz) and were tolerant of the moisture extraction; showing no problems for long-term storage under reasonable conditions.
Soursop Oil offers many properties which includes antibacterial, astringent, hypotensive and sedative to name a few. Their traditional uses are to treat asthma, chills, fever, flue, high blood pressure, insomnia, nervousness, rheumatism and skin diseases.[10] Use it in creams, lotions and ointments to relieve itching of dry skin and eczema and psoriasis symptoms. The seed has high amount of magnesium and potassium with respect to the fruit pulp.

HIV vaccine

An HIV vaccine is a vaccine which would either protect individuals who do not have HIV from contracting that virus, or otherwise may have a therapeutic effect for persons who have or later contract HIV/AIDS. Currently, there is no effective HIV vaccine but many research projects managing clinical trials seek to create one. There is evidence that a vaccine may be possible. Work with monoclonal antibodies (MAb) has shown or proven that the human body can defend itself against HIV, and certain individuals remain asymptomatic for decades after HIV infection. Potential candidates for antibodies and early stage results from clinical trials have been announced.

One HIV vaccine candidate which showed some efficacy was studied in RV 144, which was a trial in Thailand beginning in 2003 and first reporting a positive result in 2009. Many trials have shown no efficacy, including the STEP study and HVTN 505 trials

What is HIV OR AIDS ?

Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).Following initial infection, a person may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As the infection progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system, making the person much more susceptible to common infections like tuberculosis, as well as opportunistic infections and tumors that do not usually affect people who have working immune systems. The late symptoms of the infection are referred to as AIDS. This stage is often complicated by an infection of the lung known as pneumocystis pneumonia, severe weight loss, a type of cancer known as Kaposi's sarcoma, or other AIDS-defining conditions.

HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse (including anal and oral sex), contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not transmit HIV.Common methods of HIV/AIDS prevention include encouraging safe sex, needle-exchange programs, and treating those who are infected. There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy. While antiretroviral treatment reduces the risk of death and complications from the disease, these medications are expensive and have side effects. Without treatment, the average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.
Since its discovery, AIDS has caused an estimated 36 million deaths worldwide (as of 2012). In 2013 it resulted in about 1.34 million deaths. As of 2012, approximately 35.3 million people are living with HIV globally. HIV/AIDS is considered a pandemic—a disease outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading. Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. AIDS was first recognized by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981 and its cause—HIV infection—was identified in the early part of the decade.

HIV/AIDS has had a great impact on society, both as an illness and as a source of discrimination. The disease also has significant economic impacts. There are many misconceptions about HIV/AIDS such as the belief that it can be transmitted by casual non-sexual contact. The disease has become subject to many controversies involving religion. It has attracted international medical and political attention as well as large-scale funding since it was identified in the 1980s.
There is currently no cure or effective HIV vaccine. Treatment consists of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) which slows progression of the disease. As of 2010 more than 6.6 million people were taking them in low and middle income countries.Treatment also includes preventive and active treatment of opportunistic infections.
Current HAART options are combinations (or "cocktails") consisting of at least three medications belonging to at least two types, or "classes," of antiretroviral agents.Initially treatment is typically a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) plus two nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). Typical NRTIs include: zidovudine (AZT) or tenofovir (TDF) and lamivudine (3TC) or emtricitabine (FTC). Combinations of agents which include protease inhibitors (PI) are used if the above regimen loses effectiveness.

When to start antiretroviral therapy is subject to debate. The World Health Organization recommends antiretrovirals in all adolescents, adults and pregnant women with a CD4 count less than 500/µl with this being especially important in those with counts less than 350/µl or those with symptoms regardless of CD4 count. This is supported by the fact that beginning treatment at this level reduces the risk of death. The United States in addition recommends them for all HIV-infected people regardless of CD4 count or symptoms; however it makes this recommendation with less confidence for those with higher counts. While the WHO also recommends treatment in those who are co-infected with tuberculosis and those with chronic active hepatitis B. Once treatment is begun it is recommended that it is continued without breaks or "holidays". Many people are diagnosed only after treatment ideally should have begun. The desired outcome of treatment is a long term plasma HIV-RNA count below 50 copies/mL. Levels to determine if treatment is effective are initially recommended after four weeks and once levels fall below 50 copies/mL checks every three to six months are typically adequate. Inadequate control is deemed to be greater than 400 copies/mL. Based on these criteria treatment is effective in more than 95% of people during the first year.

Benefits of treatment include a decreased risk of progression to AIDS and a decreased risk of death. In the developing world treatment also improves physical and mental health. With treatment there is a 70% reduced risk of acquiring tuberculosis. Additional benefits include a decreased risk of transmission of the disease to sexual partners and a decrease in mother-to-child transmission. The effectiveness of treatment depends to a large part on compliance. Reasons for non-adherence include poor access to medical care, inadequate social supports, mental illness and drug abuse. The complexity of treatment regimens (due to pill numbers and dosing frequency) and adverse effects may reduce adherence. Even though cost is an important issue with some medications, 47% of those who needed them were taking them in low and middle income countries as of 2010and the rate of adherence is similar in low-income and high-income countries

Specific adverse events are related to the antiretroviral agent taken. Some relatively common adverse events include: lipodystrophy syndrome, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus, especially with protease inhibitors. Other common symptoms include diarrhea, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Newer recommended treatments are associated with fewer adverse effects. Certain medications may be associated with birth defects and therefore may be unsuitable for women hoping to have children.

Treatment recommendations for children are somewhat different from those for adults. The World Health Organisation recommends treating all children less than 5 years of age; children above 5 are treated like adults. The United States guidelines recommend treating all children less than 12 months of age and all those with HIV RNA counts greater than 100,000 copies/mL between one year and five years of age.

Opportunistic infections
Measures to prevent opportunistic infections are effective in many people with HIV/AIDS. In addition to improving current disease, treatment with antiretrovirals reduces the risk of developing additional opportunistic infections. Adults and adolescents who are living with HIV (even on anti-retroviral therapy) with no evidence of active tuberculosis in settings with high tuberculosis burden should receive isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT), the tuberculin skin test can be used to help decide if IPT is needed. Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for all people at risk of HIV before they become infected; however it may also be given after infection.Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis between four and six weeks of age and ceasing breastfeeding in infants born to HIV positive mothers is recommended in resource limited settings. It is also recommended to prevent PCP when a person's CD4 count is below 200 cells/uL and in those who have or have previously had PCP. People with substantial immunosuppression are also advised to receive prophylactic therapy for toxoplasmosis and Cryptococcus meningitis. Appropriate preventive measures have reduced the rate of these infections by 50% between 1992 and 1997.

Diet
Main article: Nutrition and HIV/AIDS
The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued recommendations regarding nutrient requirements in HIV/AIDS.[55]1 A generally healthy diet is promoted. Some evidence has shown a benefit from micronutrient supplements. Evidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children reduces mortality and improves growth.[156] In Africa in nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating women a multivitamin supplementation has improved outcomes for both mothers and children.Dietary intake of micronutrients at RDA levels by HIV-infected adults is recommended by the WHO; higher intake of vitamin A, zinc, and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV positive adults, and is not recommended unless there is documented deficiency.

Alternative medicine
In the US, approximately 60% of people with HIV use various forms of complementary or alternative medicine even though the effectiveness of most of these therapies has not been established. There is not enough evidence to support the use of herbal medicines. There is insufficient evidence to recommend or support the use of medical cannabis to try to increase appetite or weight gain.